Consumo de psicoestimulantes por estudantes de medicina em um centro universitário privado / Consumption of psychostimulants by medical students in a private university center

O consumo de psicoestimulantes tem crescido exponencialmente, sobretudo entre estudantes de medicina, na busca por aumentar o rendimento acadêmico. Atualmente, a extensa carga horária de aulas e estudos, exigências de produtividade e altos níveis de estresse podem desencadear o uso. Objetivo: Analisar o uso de psicoestimulantes por estudantes do curso de Medicina de um Centro Universitário privado em Minas Gerais. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo descritivo, quantitativo, com delineamento transversal entre os discentes do 1° ao 5° ano do curso de Medicina no 2° semestre de 2021. Os participantes responderam ao questionário semi-estruturado elaborado pelos autores. Os dados obtidos foram tabulados no software Statistical Product and Service Solutions. Resultados: Dos 244 entrevistados, cerca de 57.4% faziam uso de algum psicoestimulante. Houve maior uso entre os estudantes do 2° ano e as principais substâncias utilizadas foram: cafeína (85%), energético (65%) e metilfenidato (60%). A melhora na concentração (97%) foi o efeito mais percebido pelos usuários, seguido de redução do sono (83%) e melhora de raciocínio (80%). Muitos consideraram que os estimulantes cerebrais têm o potencial de melhorar o rendimento acadêmico, mas pode reduzir a qualidade do sono e consequentemente torná-los susceptíveis a outras enfermidades. Conclusão: É notável que existe uso abusivo de estimulantes cerebrais, sendo fundamental o trabalho em conjunto entre instituição de ensino e familiares, em prol da prevenção e do controle de danos causados por esse hábito

The consumption of psychostimulants has grown exponentially, especially among medical students, in the quest to increase academic performance. Currently, the extensive workload of classes and studies, productivity demands and high levels of stress can trigger use. Objective: To analyze the use of psychostimulants by medical students at a private University Center in Minas Gerais. Methods: A descriptive, quantitative, cross-sectional study was carried out among students from the 1st to the 5th year of the medicine course in the 2nd semester of 2021. The participants answered the semi-structured questionnaire prepared by the authors. The data obtained were tabulated in the Statistical Product and Service Solutions software. Results: Of the 244 respondents, about 57.4% used some psychostimulant. There was greater use among 2nd year students and the main substances used were: caffeine (85%), energy drink (65%) and methylphenidate (60%). Improved concentration (97%) was the effect most perceived by users, followed by reduced sleep (83%) and improved thinking (80%). Many considered that brain stimulants have the potential to improve academic performance, but can reduce sleep quality and consequently make them susceptible to other illnesses. Conclusion: It is notable that there is abusive use of brain stimulants, and it is essential to work together between educational institutions and family members in order to prevent and control the damage caused by this habit

Estimulantes de tipo anfetamínico en estudiantes de medicina latinoamericanos: una revisión / Amphetamine-type stimulants in Latin American medicine students: a review

Introducción: el consumo de estimulantes de tipo anfetamínico (ETA) y sus derivados está cada vez más presente en los estudiantes universitarios y, en particular, en los programas de medicina. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue revisar la literatura sobre el uso de ETA y sus derivados en estudiantes de medicina latinoamericanos. Materiales y método: se realizó una revisión de la literatura disponible, utilizando las bases de datos PubMed, SciELO y LILACS. Se encontraron un total de 1.054 artículos, de los cuales 17 fueron seleccionados para esta revisión. Resultados: la revisión muestra, en general, una mayor frecuencia de uso de ETA en estudiantes de medicina de América Latina en comparación con la población general y estudiantes de otras carreras universitarias. También existe una tendencia a un mayor uso en hombres, de mayor nivel socioeconómico y en cursos posteriores del programa. La razón más informada para usar ETA fue aumentar el rendimiento académico. Como factor protector se destacaron los deportes, el tiempo en familia y la profesión de alguna creencia religiosa. De los artículos seleccionados, no se encontraron estudios sobre las consecuencias a largo plazo del uso de ETA en estudiantes de medicina. Discusión: en resumen, los estudiantes de medicina latinoamericanos tienen un alto consumo de ETA, por lo que es evidente la necesidad de nuevos estudios para mejorar la precisión estadística, determinar factores de riesgo específicos, estudiar las consecuencias a largo plazo y establecer políticas de prevención y tratamiento.

Introduction: the consumption of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) and their derivatives are increasingly present in university students and in particular in medical programs. The main objective of this study was to review the literature on the use of ATS and their derivatives in Latin American medical students. Materials and method: a review of the literature available was performed, using PubMed, SciELO, and LILACS databases. A total of 1054 articles were found, of which 17 were selected for this review. Results: the review generally shows a higher frequency of use of ATS in medical students of Latin America compared to the general population and students from other university degrees. There is also a tendency of a higher use in men, from higher socioeconomic status, and in later courses of the program. The most reported reason for using ATS was to increase the academic performance. As a protective factor, sports, family time and professing some religious belief stood out. Of the selected articles, no studies were found on the long-term consequences of the use of ATS in medical students. Discussion: in summary, Latin American medical students have a high consumption of ATS, and therefore there is an evident need for new studies to improve statistical precision, to determine specific risk factors, to study long-term consequences, and to stablish prevention policies and treatment.

Estudo de estabilidade de anfetaminas e produtos de biotransformação de cocaína e tetraidrocanabinol em amostras de urina seca em papel (dried urine spots) / Stability study of amphetamines, biotransformation products of cocaine and tetrahydrocannabinol in dried urine spots

O número de pessoas utilizando substâncias ilícitas de forma recreativa aumenta a cada ano, chamando a atenção de estudiosos de diversas áreas do conhecimento. Com isso, a demanda de exames toxicológicos exigida para trabalhadores, vítimas de crimes e esportistas também tem crescido. A amostra biológica mais utilizada para análises toxicológicas continua sendo a urina, visto que sua obtenção é menos invasiva, possibilita coletar grande volume de amostra e pode-se detectar substâncias até dias após ter ocorrido a exposição ou consumo. Entretanto, estas amostras necessitam de um grande volume físico para serem armazenadas e transportadas aos laboratórios, devendo ser mantidas em temperatura baixa e controlada para conservação. Outro ponto a se considerar é a quantidade de amostra insuficientemente coletada, ou extravasamento do conteúdo, contaminando outras amostras e muitas vezes, inviabilizando a análise. Uma alternativa recente para tais problemas é utilizar a técnica chamada de dried urine spots (DUS), onde poucos microlitros de urina são colocados em um papel absorvente e secos sob temperatura ambiente, preservando de agentes degradantes os componentes presentes na urina. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a estabilidade das substâncias do presente estudo em alta temperatura, temperatura ambiente e em temperaturas de 4°C e -20°C. Para este fim, foi necessário desenvolver, validar e aplicar métodos de extração e determinação de anfetaminas e produtos de biotransformação de cocaína e tetraidrocanabinol carboxílico (THCCOOH) em amostras dried urine spot, utilizando cromatografia líquida acoplada à espectrometria de massas. Os picos foram identificados por UPLC-ESI-MS/MS, com tempo total de 5 mins utilizando fase A- água, formiato de amônio e 0,1% ácido fórmico, e B- metanol: acetonitrila (6:4) + 0,1% de ácido fórmico. A extração foi feita utilizando acetonitrila: metanol: acetona (1:1:1) +ácido fórmico 0,1%. Não foi possível iniciar a validação de THCCOOH, visto uma possível complexação do analito com o papel. Para as outras substâncias, o método cromatográfico desenvolvido se mostrou eficiente e seletivo, com LOD e LOQ de 10 ng/mL para todos os analitos, sendo linear até 1000 ng/mL, atendeu as especificações de precisão e exatidão e carryover. As amostras permaneceram estáveis ao longo de 32 dias nas temperaturas estudadas, demonstrando a segurança em se utilizar a técnica de DUS para armazenamento e transporte de amostras biológicas dentro da faixa de temperatura do estudo até 32 dias

The number of people using illegal substances in a recreational way increases each year, drawing the attention of scholars from different areas of knowledge. As a result, the demand for workplaces drug tests, toxicological tests for victims of crimes and dopping has also grown. The biological sample most used for toxicological tests remains urine, since obtaining it is less invasive, it is possible to collect a large volume of sample and it is possible to detect substances up to days after exposure or consumption has occurred. However, these samples require a large physical volume to be stored and transported to the laboratories, and must be kept at a low temperature for conservation. Another point to consider is the amount of sample insufficiently collected, or leakage of the content, causing contamination of other samples and often making the analysis unfeasible. A recent alternative to such problems is to use "dried urine spots" (DUS), where few microliters of urine are placed on absorbent paper and dried at room temperature, preserving the components present in the urine from degrading agents. Thus, the objective of this work is to evaluate the stability of the substances in this study at high temperature, room temperature and at temperatures of 4°C and -20°C. For this purpose, it was necessary to develop, validate and apply methods of extraction and determination of amphetamines and biotransformation products of cocaine and carboxylic tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) in dried urine spot samples, using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The peaks were identified liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS), with a total time of 5 mins using phase A- water, ammonium formate and 0.1% formic acid, and B- methanol: acetonitrile (6:4) + 0.1% formic acid. Extraction was done using acetonitrile: methanol: acetone (1:1:1) + 0.1% formic acid. It was not possible to perform the validation of THCCOOH, given a possible complexation of the analyte with the paper. To the others substances, the chromatographic method developed proved to be efficient and selective, with LOD and LOQ of 10 ng/mL for all analytes, being linear up to 1000 ng/mL, meeting the specifications of precision and accuracy and carryover. The samples remained stable for 32 days at the temperatures studied, demonstrating the safety of using the DUS technique for storage and transport of biological samples until 32 days on temperature range studied

Patologia do desempenho: TDAH, drogas estimulantes e formas de sofrimento no capitalismo / Performance pathology: ADHD, stimulant drugs, and forms of suffering in the capitalism / Patología de desempeño: TDAH, drogas estimulantes y formas de sufrimiento en el capitalismo

O consumo de medicamentos estimulantes cresceu nos últimos anos, no Brasil e no mundo. Pessoas de diferentes idades, especialmente crianças e adolescentes, passaram a consumir estimulantes como a principal terapêutica utilizada para tratar o transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH). Nesse contexto, estimulantes como as anfetaminas e o metilfenidato, mais conhecidos pelos nomes comerciais de Adderall e Ritalina, ganharam visibilidade social em razão da associação desses psicofármacos ao aperfeiçoamento de funções psíquicas como a atenção e o aumento na qualidade e no tempo de rendimento dos sujeitos nas mais variadas atividades. Com isso, aumentou também a procura desses estimulantes por pessoas que não estão em tratamento médico, mas que buscam aprimorar seu desempenho nas atividades que realizam. Diante desse cenário, o objetivo deste artigo foi demonstrar como o crescimento no consumo de estimulantes, seja por sujeitos em tratamento médico ou não, está relacionado aos processos de socialização hegemônicos nas sociedades capitalistas atualmente. Articulando o contexto apresentado com os conceitos da psicanálise lacaniana, foi possível concluir que o consumo massivo de estimulantes está relacionado aos processos de patologização e medicalização da existência, colocados em movimento por uma articulação entre o discurso médico-científico e o discurso do capitalista na contemporaneidade.(AU)

The consumption of stimulating drugs has grown in recent years in Brazil and worldwide. People of all ages, especially children and adolescents, started to use stimulants as the main therapy used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In this context, stimulants such as amphetamines and methylphenidate, better known by the trade names Adderall and Ritalin, have gained social visibility due to the association of these psychoactive drugs with the improvement of psychic functions such as attention and the increase in quality and performance time of subjects in the most varied activities. As a result, the demand for these stimulants has also increased by people who are not undergoing medical treatment, but who seek to improve their performance in the activities they perform. Given this scenario, this article aimed to demonstrate how the growth in the consumption of stimulants, whether by subjects undergoing medical treatment or not, is related to the hegemonic socialization processes in capitalist societies today. Articulating the context presented with the concepts of Lacanian psychoanalysis, it was possible to conclude that the massive consumption of stimulants is related to the processes of pathologization and medicalization of existence, set in motion by an articulation between the medical-scientific discourse and the capitalist discourse in contemporary times.(AU)

El consumo de drogas estimulantes ha crecido en los últimos años, en Brasil y en otros países. Diversas personas, especialmente niños y adolescentes, comenzaron a usar estimulantes como la terapia principal utilizada para tratar el trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad (TDAH). En este contexto, los estimulantes como las anfetaminas y el metilfenidato, mejor conocidos por los nombres comerciales Adderall y Ritalina, han ganado visibilidad social debido a la asociación de estas drogas psicoactivas a la mejora de las funciones psíquicas, como la atención y el aumento de la calidad y el tiempo de rendimiento de los pacientes en diversas actividades. Como resultado, la demanda de estos estimulantes también ha aumentado por las personas que no reciben tratamiento médico, pero que buscan mejorar su desempeño en las actividades que realizan. Dado este escenario, el objetivo de este artículo era demostrar cómo el crecimiento en el consumo de estimulantes, ya sea por sujetos que reciben tratamiento médico o no, está relacionado con los procesos de socialización hegemónica en la sociedad capitalista actual. De la articulación del contexto presentado con los conceptos del psicoanálisis lacaniano se concluye que el consumo masivo de estimulantes está relacionado con los procesos de patologización y medicalización de la existencia, puestos en marcha por una articulación entre el discurso médico-científico y el discurso capitalista en los tiempos contemporáneos.(AU)

Estudo de estabilidade de anfetaminas e produtos de biotransformação de cocaína e tetraidrocanabinol em amostras de urina seca em papel (dried urine spots) / Stability study of amphetamines, biotransformation products of cocaine and tetrahydrocannabinol in dried urine spots

O número de pessoas utilizando substâncias ilícitas de forma recreativa aumenta a cada ano, chamando a atenção de estudiosos de diversas áreas do conhecimento. Com isso, a demanda de exames toxicológicos exigida para trabalhadores, vítimas de crimes e esportistas também tem crescido. A amostra biológica mais utilizada para análises toxicológicas continua sendo a urina, visto que sua obtenção é menos invasiva, possibilita coletar grande volume de amostra e pode-se detectar substâncias até dias após ter ocorrido a exposição ou consumo. Entretanto, estas amostras necessitam de um grande volume físico para serem armazenadas e transportadas aos laboratórios, devendo ser mantidas em temperatura baixa e controlada para conservação. Outro ponto a se considerar é a quantidade de amostra insuficientemente coletada, ou extravasamento do conteúdo, contaminando outras amostras e muitas vezes, inviabilizando a análise. Uma alternativa recente para tais problemas é utilizar a técnica chamada de dried urine spots (DUS), onde poucos microlitros de urina são colocados em um papel absorvente e secos sob temperatura ambiente, preservando de agentes degradantes os componentes presentes na urina. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a estabilidade das substâncias do presente estudo em alta temperatura, temperatura ambiente e em temperaturas de 4°C e -20°C. Para este fim, foi necessário desenvolver, validar e aplicar métodos de extração e determinação de anfetaminas e produtos de biotransformação de cocaína e tetraidrocanabinol carboxílico (THCCOOH) em amostras dried urine spot, utilizando cromatografia líquida acoplada à espectrometria de massas. Os picos foram identificados por UPLC-ESI-MS/MS, com tempo total de 5 mins utilizando fase A- água, formiato de amônio e 0,1% ácido fórmico, e B- metanol: acetonitrila (6:4) + 0,1% de ácido fórmico. A extração foi feita utilizando acetonitrila: metanol: acetona (1:1:1) +ácido fórmico 0,1%. Não foi possível iniciar a validação de THCCOOH, visto uma possível complexação do analito com o papel. Para as outras substâncias, o método cromatográfico desenvolvido se mostrou eficiente e seletivo, com LOD e LOQ de 10 ng/mL para todos os analitos, sendo linear até 1000 ng/mL, atendeu as especificações de precisão e exatidão e carryover. As amostras permaneceram estáveis ao longo de 32 dias nas temperaturas estudadas, demonstrando a segurança em se utilizar a técnica de DUS para armazenamento e transporte de amostras biológicas dentro da faixa de temperatura do estudo até 32 dias

The number of people using illegal substances in a recreational way increases each year, drawing the attention of scholars from different areas of knowledge. As a result, the demand for workplaces drug tests, toxicological tests for victims of crimes and dopping has also grown. The biological sample most used for toxicological tests remains urine, since obtaining it is less invasive, it is possible to collect a large volume of sample and it is possible to detect substances up to days after exposure or consumption has occurred. However, these samples require a large physical volume to be stored and transported to the laboratories, and must be kept at a low temperature for conservation. Another point to consider is the amount of sample insufficiently collected, or leakage of the content, causing contamination of other samples and often making the analysis unfeasible. A recent alternative to such problems is to use "dried urine spots" (DUS), where few microliters of urine are placed on absorbent paper and dried at room temperature, preserving the components present in the urine from degrading agents. Thus, the objective of this work is to evaluate the stability of the substances in this study at high temperature, room temperature and at temperatures of 4°C and -20°C. For this purpose, it was necessary to develop, validate and apply methods of extraction and determination of amphetamines and biotransformation products of cocaine and carboxylic tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH) in dried urine spot samples, using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The peaks were identified liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS), with a total time of 5 mins using phase A- water, ammonium formate and 0.1% formic acid, and B- methanol: acetonitrile (6:4) + 0.1% formic acid. Extraction was done using acetonitrile: methanol: acetone (1:1:1) + 0.1% formic acid. It was not possible to perform the validation of THCCOOH, given a possible complexation of the analyte with the paper. To the others substances, the chromatographic method developed proved to be efficient and selective, with LOD and LOQ of 10 ng/mL for all analytes, being linear up to 1000 ng/mL, meeting the specifications of precision and accuracy and carryover. The samples remained stable for 32 days at the temperatures studied, demonstrating the safety of using the DUS technique for storage and transport of biological samples until 32 days on temperature range studied

Associação entre horas de trabalho e de descanso e o uso de substâncias psicoativas entre motoristas profissionais de caminhão / Association between hours of work and rest and the use of psychoactive substances among professional truck drivers

OBJETIVO: Investigar a associação de horas diárias de trabalho e de descanso com o uso de substâncias psicoativas entre motoristas profissionais de caminhão. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal conduzido em 2016 com 354 motoristas profissionais de caminhão que aguardavam a inspeção da mercadoria transportada em um Posto de Controle Fiscal localizado na cidade de Itatiaia, RJ, Brasil. A associação entre horas diárias de trabalho (exposição), horas diárias de descanso (exposição) e uso de substâncias psicoativas (desfecho) foi investigada por meio de modelos de regressão linear que estimaram coeficientes de regressão (ß) e respectivos erros-padrão, considerando p < 0,05. RESULTADOS: Mostraram-se positivas as associações entre horas diárias de trabalho e uso de anfetamina (ß = 0,91; erro-padrão = 0,19; p < 0,01) e de cocaína/crack (ß = 1,32; erro-padrão = 0,35; p < 0,01) e negativa a associação entre horas diárias de descanso e uso de anfetamina (ß = -0,43; erro-padrão = 0,09; p < 0,01). CONCLUSÃO: Horas diárias de trabalho e de descanso parecem ser determinantes do uso de anfetamina e de cocaína/ crack entre motoristas profissionais de caminhão.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association of hours of work and rest with use of psychoactive substances among professional truck drivers. METHODS: Cross-sectional study conducted in 2016 with 354 professional truck drivers waiting for the inspection of the goods transported at a Fiscal Control Post located in the city of Itatiaia, RJ, Brazil. The association between daily working hours (exposure), daily rest hours (exposure) and use of psychoactive substances (outcome) was investigated using linear regression models that estimated regression coefficients (ß) and respective standard error, considering p < 0.05. RESULTS: They were positive the associations between daily working hours and use of amphetamine (ß = 0.91; standard error = 0.19; p < 0.01) and cocaine/crack (ß = 1.32; standard error = 0.35; p < 0.01) and the association between daily rest hours and use of amphetamine (ß = - 0.43; standard error = 0.09; p < 0.01) was negative. CONCLUSION: Daily hours of work and rest seem to be determinants of the use of amphetamine and cocaine/crack among professional truck drivers.

Uso de testosterona en mujeres: un comentario sobre el consenso global sobre el uso de la terapia de testosterona para mujeres / Global consensus position statement on the use of testosterone therapy for women

Las mujeres han sido tratadas por décadas con testosterona intentando aliviar una gran variedad de síntomas con riesgos y beneficios inciertos. En la mayoría de los países, la testosterona se prescribe "off-label", de modo que las mujeres están utilizando compuestos y dosis ideadas para tratamientos en hombres. En este sentido, varias sociedades médicas de distintos continentes adoptaron recientemente por consenso una toma de posición sobre los beneficios y potenciales riesgos de la terapia con testosterona en la mujer, explorar las áreas de incertidumbre e identificar prácticas de prescripción con potencial de causar daño. Las recomendaciones con respecto a los beneficios y riesgos de la terapia con testosterona se basan en los resultados de ensayos clínicos controlados con placebo de al menos 12 semanas de duración. A continuación se comentan las recomendaciones. (AU)

There are currently no clear established indications for testosterone replacement therapy for women. Nonetheless, clinicians have been treating women with testosterone to alleviate a variety of symptoms for decades with uncertainty regarding its benefits and risks. In most countries, testosterone therapy is prescribed off-label, which means that women are using testosterone formulations or compounds approved for men with a modified dose for women. Due to these issues, there was a need for a global Consensus Position Statement on testosterone therapy for women based on the available evidence from placebo randomized controlled trials (RCTs). This Position Statement was developed to inform health care professionals about the benefits and potential risks of testosterone therapy intended for women. The aim of the Consensus was to provide clear guidance as to which women might benefit from testosterone therapy; to identify symptoms, signs, and certain conditions for which the evidence does not support the prescription of testosterone; to explore areas of uncertainty, and to identify any prescribing practices that have the potential to cause harm. (AU)

Circulación de información sobre medicamentos y otras sustancias para aumentar el rendimiento cognitivo: un estudio de un blog brasileño (2015-2017) / Circulation of information on drugs and other substances to increase cognitive performance: a study of a Brazilian blog (2015-2017)

RESUMEN Al observar los procesos de (bio)medicalización y farmacologización de la sociedad, este artículo aborda los medicamentos que han sido utilizados por individuos sanos para aumentar sus dimensiones cognitivas, como el estado de alerta, la memoria y la concentración. Las llamadas "drogas inteligentes" o "drogas nootrópicas" se han extendido entre los jóvenes a través de Internet. La circulación de información sobre tales drogas se analiza desde un blog brasileño llamado Cérebro Turbinado, sobre el que se realizó una investigación documental basada en el material publicado en el blog entre 2015 y 2017, de acceso público. La investigación adopta marcos teóricos y metodológicos de las ciencias sociales, junto a una perspectiva antropológica. Los resultados muestran que el blog actúa como un medio para la difusión del conocimiento biomédico entre el público lego y muestra la producción de nuevas formas de subjetividad al revelar los significados que se atribuyen a tales sustancias en los procesos de socialización.

ABSTRACT By observing the processes of (bio)medicalization and pharmaceuticalization of society, this article addresses drugs that have been used by healthy individuals to increase cognitive dimensions such as alertness, memory, and concentration. The use of so-called "smart drugs" or "nootropics" has spread among young people, aided by the internet. The circulation of information about such drugs are analyzed using a Brazilian blog called "Cérebro Turbinado," through publications available for public access between 2015 and 2017. The study adopts theoretical and methodological frameworks of the social sciences, including an anthropological perspective. Documental research was conducted on the internet, specifically with scientific dissemination materials and the material available from the aforementioned blog. The results show that the blog acts as a medium for spreading biomedical knowledge among the lay public and indicates the production of new forms of subjectivity by revealing the meanings attributed to these substances in socialization processes.

Risk Factors for Temporomandibular Disorders among Amphetamine Users in Indonesia

Abstract Objective: To determine the possible risk factors for temporomandibular disorders (TMD) among amphetamine users in Indonesia. Material and Methods: This cross-sectional study involved 152 male amphetamine users, aged 18-45 years, who were undergoing rehabilitation. Data were obtained from medical records, questionnaires, and clinical examinations. Data obtained from medical records included age, gender, duration of amphetamine use, duration of rehabilitation, and psychiatric status. Collected data were analyzed using the Chi-square and logistic regression tests to identify correlations between TMD and bruxism, oral habits, tooth wear, duration of amphetamine abused, and duration of rehabilitation Results: TMD was found in 84.2% of amphetamine users, with clicking being the most frequently reported sign (72.4%). Tooth wear (72.4%), oral habits (60.5%), and bruxism (56.6%) were also frequently found. Statistically, a significant association was found between TMD and bruxism (p<0.001), tooth wear (p<0.001), and oral habits (p<0.001). However, there was no association observed between TMD and duration of amphetamine abused (p=0.526), and duration of rehabilitation (p=0.679). Odds ratios produced by logistic regression for tooth wear, oral habits, and bruxism were 6.657, 6.2, and 1.659, respectively Conclusion: Tooth wear, oral habits, and bruxism were identified as risk factors for TMD among amphetamine users in Indonesia.

Research Progress on Detection Methods of Amphetamines in Human Hair / 法医学杂志

Amphetamines are chemical synthetic drugs that are becoming increasingly popular in China. As a common sample in the inspection of poisons, hair has the advantages of easy storage, good stability, and long detection time compared with traditional human body fluid samples （blood, urine）, thus possesses an unique application value in the field of forensic toxicology analysis. By now, methods for detecting amphetamines in human hair have been widely used, and validity of the results has been recognized and adopted by the court. This paper reviews domestic and foreign research progress of the detection of amphetamines in hair samples, including the pretreatment and analytic methods.

Epidemiología de las intoxicaciones agudas por drogas de abuso en las urgencias de un hospital del Centro de España basada en datos de análisis toxicológico de orina / Epidemiology of acute poisonings for drugs of abuse in the emergency room of a hospital from the Center of Spain based on analysis data toxicological urine

Introducción: las intoxicaciones agudas son motivo de consulta cada vez más frecuente en los Servicios de Urgencia hospitalarios (SUH) debido a la mayor disponibilidad y acceso a productos químicos tóxicos. Se observan diferentes patrones en cada área sanitaria según el tipo de población, geografía y perfil epidemiológico de consumo. Material y métodos: el objetivo de nuestro estudio es realizar un perfil epidemiológico y describir el manejo del paciente que acude por clínica compatible con intoxicación aguda por drogas de abuso (IA) basado en la determinación de tóxicos en orina para seis sustancias (cannabis, opiáceos, cocaína, anfetaminas, benzodiazepinas y éxtasis) solicitados en el período de estudio 2010-2012. Resultados: se solicitaron 2755 peticiones, de las cuales fueron positivas 1429, y se estudiaron al azar 661 historias clínicas. El perfil de paciente intoxicado de nuestra área es el de varón de entre 30 y 40 años, consumidor preferentemente de cannabis y cocaína; las benzodiazepinas son el tóxico más frecuente en las mujeres, con clínica mayoritariamente neurológica, sin diferencias en cuanto a la franja horaria o el mes del año en que recibió el alta desde el propio SUH en casi el 60% de los casos. Discusión: las IA en los SUH representan casi el 1% de las consultas y tienen una escasa mortalidad. En algunos casos, el médico de urgencias comienza el tratamiento antes de conocer el resultado toxicológico, lo que nos hace plantearnos la utilidad real y el coste-efectividad de estas determinaciones en todos los pacientes con alteración del nivel de conciencia. (AU)

Introduction: acute intoxications are a rising and common query demand on the emergency rooms because of the easy access and disponibility to toxic substances, where we can observe different patterns attending to type of population, geography and epidemiologic consume profile. Material and methods: our objective is to analyze the epidemiology and patient handling coming to the Emergency Room (ER) with compatible symptoms of street drugs abuse, based on the determination of cannabis, cocaine, amphetamine, benzodiazepine, opiates and ectasy urine levels in the period 2010-2012. Results: the ER requested 2755 determinations being positive 1429 and randomly examined 661 clinical histories. The profile of intoxicated patient was male, 30 to 40 years old, preferently cannabis and cocaine consumer (benzodiazepine in women), mostly with neurological symptoms when arrive, without differences between months or day time and, almost 60% of them, discharged directly from the ER. Conclusions: acute intoxications barely represent 1% of ER demands and produce poor or scarce mortality. Sometimes, doctors in charge start with therapeutic measures before knowing the results of toxicology, what leads us to ask about actual usefulness and cost-efficiency of the toxicology assay to every patient with low conscious level. (AU)

Behavioral cross-sensitization between testosterone and fenproporex in adolescent and adult rats

The abuse of psychoactive drugs is considered a global health problem. During the last years, a relevant number of studies have investigated the relationship between anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) and other psychoactive drugs. AAS, such as testosterone, can cause a dependence syndrome that shares many features with the classical dependence to psychoactive substances. Pre-clinical evidence shows that there are interactions between testosterone and psychoactive drugs, such as cocaine. However, few studies have been performed to investigate the effect of repeated testosterone treatment on behavioral effects of amphetamine derivatives, such as fenproporex. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of repeated testosterone administration on fenproporex-induced locomotor activity in adolescent and adult rats. Adolescent male Wistar rats were injected with testosterone (10 mg/kg sc for 10 days). After 3 days, animals received an acute injection of fenproporex (3.0 mg/kg ip) and the locomotor activity was recorded during 40 min. Thirty days later, the same animals received the same treatment with testosterone followed by a fenproporex challenge injection as described above. Our results demonstrated that repeated testosterone induced behavioral sensitization to fenproporex in adolescent but not in adult rats. These findings suggest that repeated AAS treatment might increase the dependence vulnerability to amphetamine and its derivatives in adolescent rats.

Psychotic Disorder Induced by Appetite Suppressants, Phentermine or Phendimetrazine: A Case Series Study

OBJECTIVES: A retrospective case series study was conducted to investigate the clinical characteristics of psychotic disorders induced by appetite suppressants, phentermine and phendimetrazine. METHODS: A retrospective electronic medical record review identified 5 admitted patients who had psychotic symptoms after taking phentermine or phendimetrazine. Clinical information was reviewed and summarized in each case. RESULTS: Hallucinations were reported in all cases, including auditory, visual, olfactory and somatic hallucinations. After discontinuation of phentermine or phendimetrazine, the symptoms rapidly improved with low dose of antipsychotics. Patients tended to have less prominent negative symptoms and higher insight into illness, and often showed depressive mood. These clinical characteristics were similar to psychosis induced by amphetamines. Two patients developed stimulant use disorder while using phentermine. CONCLUSIONS: These findings call for awareness of the risks associated with use of appetite suppressants. Prescription of phentermine or phendimetrazine should be accompanied by close monitoring of mental status, and suspicion for substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder.

Possible mechanisms involved in the vasorelaxant effect produced by clobenzorex in aortic segments of rats

Clobenzorex is a metabolic precursor of amphetamine indicated for the treatment of obesity. Amphetamines have been involved with cardiovascular side effects such as hypertension and pulmonary arterial hypertension. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the direct application of 10-9-10-5 M clobenzorex on isolated phenylephrine-precontracted rat aortic rings produces vascular effects, and if so, what mechanisms may be involved. Clobenzorex produced an immediate concentration-dependent vasorelaxant effect at the higher concentrations (10-7.5-10-5 M). The present outcome was not modified by 10-6 M atropine (an antagonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors), 3.1×10-7 M glibenclamide (an ATP-sensitive K+ channel blocker), 10-3 M 4-aminopyridine (4-AP; a voltage-activated K+ channel blocker), 10-5 M indomethacin (a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor), 10-5 M clotrimazole (a cytochrome P450 inhibitor) or 10-5 M cycloheximide (a general protein synthesis inhibitor). Contrarily, the clobenzorex-induced vasorelaxation was significantly attenuated (P<0.05) by 10-5 M L-NAME (a direct inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase), 10-7 M ODQ (an inhibitor of nitric oxide-sensitive guanylyl cyclase), 10-6 M KT 5823 (an inhibitor of protein kinase G), 10-2 M TEA (a Ca2+-activated K+ channel blocker and non-specific voltage-activated K+ channel blocker) and 10-7 M apamin plus 10-7 M charybdotoxin (blockers of small- and large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels, respectively), and was blocked by 8×10-2 M potassium (a high concentration) and removal of the vascular endothelium. These results suggest that the direct vasorelaxant effect by clobenzorex on phenylephrine-precontracted rat aortic rings involved stimulation of the NO/cGMP/PKG/Ca2+-activated K+ channel pathway.

Safety and efficacy of fenproporex for obesity treatment: a systematic review / Segurança e eficácia do fenproporex para tratamento da obesidade: revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To evaluate clinical evidence on the safety and efficacy of fenproporex for treating obesity. METHODS MEDLINE, LILACS and Cochrane Controlled Trials Register were searched as well as references cited by articles and relevant documents. Two authors independently assessed the studies for inclusion and regarding risk of bias, collected data, and accuracy. Eligible studies were all those placebo-controlled that provided data on the efficacy and safety of Fenproporex to treat obesity. RESULTS Only four controlled studies met the inclusion criteria. One randomized, placebo-controlled trial on Fenproporex was found on electronic databases. Three placebo-controlled studies (in non-indexed journals) were identified by hand-searching. Patients with cardiovascular and other comorbidities were excluded in all studies. Trials lasted from 40 to 364 days and doses ranged from 20 to 33.6 mg/d. All controlled studies found that weight loss among Fenproporex-treated patients was greater than that produced by the placebo, but drug effect was modest. Fenproporex produced additional weight reductions of 4.7 kg (one year), 3.8 kg (six months) and 1.55 kg (two months) in average, in relation to diet and exercise only (three trials). Insomnia, irritability, and anxiety were the most frequently reported side effects in the four studies. CONCLUSIONS There is a paucity of randomized, placebo-controlled trials on Fenproporex and those identified here present major methodological flaws. These studies suggest that Fenproporex is modestly effective in promoting weight loss. Nonetheless, they failed to provide evidence that it reduces obesity-associated morbidity and mortality. Data from these studies are insufficient to determine the risk-benefit profile of Fenproporex. Abuse potential and amphetamine-like adverse effects are causes for concern.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Avaliar a evidência clínica de segurança e eficácia do Fenproporex para tratamento da obesidade. MÉTODOS Pesquisamos publicações em qualquer idioma nas bases Medline, Lilacs Cochrane Controlled Trials Register e também referências citadas por artigos e documentos relevantes. Dois autores avaliaram independentemente os estudos para inclusão e quanto ao risco de viés, dados coletados e precisão. Foram elegíveis estudos controlados com placebo que forneceram dados sobre a eficácia e segurança do Fenproporex para tratar a obesidade. RESULTADOS Apenas quatro estudos controlados preencheram critérios de inclusão. Um estudo placebo-controlado aleatorizado do Fenproporex foi encontrado nas bases eletrônicas. Três estudos controlados (em periódicos não indexados) foram identificados por buscas manuais. Pacientes com comorbidades (cardiovasculares ou outras) foram excluídos em todos os estudos. A duração dos estudos foi de 40 a 364 dias, com doses de 20 a 33,6 mg/d. Todos os estudos controlados encontraram maior perda de peso entre pacientes tratados com Fenproporex, comparados aos que receberam placebo, mas o efeito foi modesto. O Fenproporex causou reduções adicionais de peso de 4,7 kg (após um ano), 3,8 kg (após seis meses) e 1,55 kg (após dois meses), em média, em relação à dieta e exercício apenas (três ensaios). Insônia, irritabilidade e ansiedade foram os eventos colaterais mais frequentes nos quatro estudos. CONCLUSÕES Ensaios clínicos placebo-controlado aleatorizado do Fenproporex são escassos e os estudos controlados identificados apresentam importantes falhas metodológicas. Esses estudos sugerem que o Fenproporex é modestamente eficaz em promover perda de peso. Entretanto, eles não fornecem evidências de que o Fenproporex atenua a morbidade e mortalidade associada à obesidade. Esses estudos são insuficientes para avaliar o perfil risco-benefício do Fenproporex. Potencial de abuso e efeitos adversos do tipo anfetamínico são motivos de preocupação.

Evaluation of Na+, K+-ATPase activity in the brain of young rats after acute administration of fenproporex

Objectives: Fenproporex is an amphetamine-based anorectic which is rapidly converted into amphetamine in vivo. Na+, K+-ATPase is a membrane-bound enzyme necessary to maintain neuronal excitability. Considering that the effects of fenproporex on brain metabolism are poorly known and that Na+, K+-ATPase is essential for normal brain function, this study sought to evaluate the effect of this drug on Na+, K+-ATPase activity in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, and striatum of young rats. Methods: Young male Wistar rats received a single injection of fenproporex (6.25, 12.5, or 25 mg/kg intraperitoneally) or polysorbate 80 (control group). Two hours after the last injection, the rats were killed by decapitation and the brain was removed for evaluation of Na+, K+-ATPase activity. Results: Fenproporex decreased Na+, K+-ATPase activity in the striatum of young rats at doses of 6.25, 12.5, and 25 mg/kg and increased enzyme activity in the hypothalamus at the same doses. Na+, K+-ATPase activity was not affected in the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Conclusion: Fenproporex administration decreased Na+, K+-ATPase activity in the striatum even in low doses. However, in the hypothalamus, Na+, K+-ATPase activity was increased. Changes in this enzyme might be the result of the effects of fenproporex on neuronal excitability. .

Evaluación del programa de mantenimiento con metadona del Hospital Mental de Risaralda / Evaluation of the Methadone Maintenance Program of the Risaralda Mental Hospital

Introducción: La atención psicosocial y el tratamiento de mantenimiento con metadona (TMM) son las estrategias preferidas para el manejo de adictos a heroína, pero los resultados siguen siendo insatisfactorios, lo que justifica la búsqueda e intervención sobre los factores que influyen en la respuesta al tratamiento. Métodos: Con el propósito de determinar la contribución de una serie de variables demográficas, clínicas y genéticas en las concentraciones séricas y la respuesta a la metadona, estudiamos a pacientes del TMM que estuvieran recibiendo metadona con supervisión y sin cambios en las dosis por lo menos durante las últimas 2 semanas. Se les registró edad, sexo, índice de masa corporal (IMC), tiempo de abuso de heroína, adicción a otras drogas, antecedentes delictivos, dosis diaria actual de metadona, tiempo de permanencia en el TMM, comorbilidad y comedicación. Se les tomaron muestras de sangre para determinar concentraciones séricas de metadona racémica y sus enantiómeros R-y S-, y para la tipificación de alelos candidatos de los genes POR, CYP2B6, ABCB1, GRIN1, OPRM1, SLC6A3, DßH y ARRB2, todos ellos asociados con el metabolismo, la distribución tisular y el mecanismo de acción de la metadona. La cuantificación de metadona se hizo mediante HPLC-DAD y la detección de los marcadores genéticos por los métodos de PCR en tiempo real y VNTR. Resultados: Se incluyó a 80 personas de 23,5 ± 5a ˜nos (el 86% varones), todos policonsumidores de sustancias adictivas, el 60% con antecedentes delictivos, con 5,1 ± 2,9 años de consumo de heroína y 5,3 ± 4 meses de ingreso al TMM, con 41 ± 12 mg/día de meta-dona tomada con supervisión. Las concentraciones valle de RS-, R-y S-metadona fueron, respectivamente, 168 ± 77, 84 ± 40 y 84 ± 42 ng/ml. Todos los genotipos estuvieron en equilibrio de Hardy-Weinberg. Las dos pruebas de orina fueron negativas para heroína en el 61,3% (49/80) de los voluntarios; el descenso en el consumo de cocaína/basuco fue del 83%; el de marihuana, del 30% y el de otros psicoactivos (inhalantes, benzodiacepinas, anfetaminas) bajó a cero, mientras el consumo de tabaco permaneció en el 93,5% (75/80). Las concentraciones de metadona racémica y sus enantiómeros se correlacionaron significativamente con las dosis diaria del fármaco, pero ninguna de las demás variables demográficas, clínicas o genéticas incidió en la concentración sérica de metadona. En cuanto a los resultados del TMM, los no consumidores y los consumidores ocasionales de heroína, así como los que abandonaron el consumo de otros psicoactivos y los que no, tuvieron características similares con respecto a las variables demográficas, genéticas y clínicas, incluidas las concentraciones sanguíneas de metadona, con excepción de los individuos que no disminuyeron el consumo de otros psicoactivos distintos de heroína, quienes tuvieron significativamente (p = 0,03) mayores concentraciones sanguíneas de S-metadona que quienes sí abandonaron el consumo. Conclusiones: Hubo importante reducción en los consumos de heroína y otros psicoactivos y reinserción social de los pacientes; sin embargo, la amplia superposición entre las dosis efectivas e inefectivas de metadona apunta a la presencia de variables personales y sociales que trascienden el simple manejo farmacológico y probablemente deban ser abordadas con más éxito desde lo psicosocial, particularmente en lo que tiene que ver con la identificación y superación de las experiencias detonantes de recaídas y con ciertos rasgos del paciente, tales como su nivel de estrés psicológico o sus trastornos psiquiátricos.

Background: Psychosocial care and methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) are the preferred strategies for the management of heroin addicts, but the results are still unsa-tisfactory, justifying the search and intervention of the factors influencing the response to treatment. Methodology: In order to determine the contribution of demographic, clinical and genetic variables on serum concentrations and response to methadone, we investigated patients on MMT, who were receiving methadone in supervised and unchanged doses at least during the previous two weeks. The age, gender, body mass index (BMI), duration of heroin abuse, addiction to other drugs, criminal background, current daily methadone doses, time spent in the TMM, comorbidity and concomitant medication were recorded. Blood samples were taken for the determination of serum levels of racemic methadone and its R and S-enantiomers, and for typing of candidate alleles of POR, CYP2B6, ABCB1, GRIN1, OPRM1, SLC6A3, DßH and ARRB2 genes, all associated with the metabolism, tissue distribution and mechanism of action of methadone. Methadone quantification was by HPLC-DAD, and the detection of genetic markers by Real Time PCR and VNTR methods. Results: A total of 80 subject volunteers were enrolled, with a mean age of 23.5 (5) years (86% male), all of them were addicts of multiple drugs, 60% with a criminal background, 5.1 (2.9) years taking heroin, and 5.3 (4) months on MMT, and taking a supervised dose of 41 (12) mg/day methadone. The (R), (S) and (R, S) methadone enantiomer trough plasma levels were, 84 (40), 84 (42), and 168 (77) ng/mL, respectively. All genotypes were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The two urine tests were negative for heroin in 61.3% (49/80) of the volunteers, the decline in cocaine/crack use was 83%, 30% of marijuana, and other psychoactives (inhalants, benzodiazepines, amphetamines) decreased to zero, while the consumption of snuff remained at 93.5% (75/80). Blood concentrations of racemic methadone and its enantiomers were significantly associated with the dose/day of the medication, but none of the other demographic, clinical or genetic variables impacted on serum levels of methadone. As for the results of the MMT, non-users and occasional users of heroin, as well as those who stopped taking other psychoactive drugs, and the ones who did not, were similar as regards the demographic, genetic and clinical variables. This included the blood metahdone concentrations, except for individuals who did not reduce their consumption of other psychoactives other than heroin, who had significantly (P = .03) higher blood levels of S-methadone, compared with those who did stop taking them. Conclusions: There was a significant reduction in the consumption of heroin and other psychoactives, and social rehabilitation of patients. However, the extensive overlap between effective and ineffective doses of methadone suggests the presence of personal and social variables that transcend the simple pharmacological management. These probably need to be addressed more successfully from the psychosocial features, particularly as regards to identifying and overcoming relapse-trigger experiences, as well as certain features of the patient, such as their psychological distress level or their psychiatric disorders.

Cross-sectional study of the dispensation of synthetic anorectic drugs in community pharmacies in the city of Cruz Alta - State of Rio Grande do Sul

Obesity is defined as the excess adipose tissue in the body. Drugs responsible for inhibiting the appetite are called anorectics or appetite suppressants. Sibutramine, fenproporex and amfepramone belongs to this class, and are capable of causing physical or psychological dependence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of prescriptions for appetite suppressants in community pharmacies at Cruz Alta, State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The sales of fenproporex, amfepramone and sibutramine in the months of September, October and November 2010 and April, May and June 2011 were compared. It was observed that the most commonly dispensed anorectic in the three community pharmacies analyzed was sibutramine. In the months of September, October and November 2010, consumption was higher, with sibutramine achieving 40.3% of overall sales, amfepramone 21% and, finally, fenproporex, 7.9%. The consumption of appetite suppressants was more prevalent in females, who represented 82% of total. The results suggested the existence of high consumption of anorectics, possibly related to the current concern with aesthetic standards, which emphasizes the importance of strict control over the marketing of these substances.

Obesidade define-se como excesso de tecido adiposo no organismo. Os fármacos responsáveis por inibir o apetite são denominados anorexígenos ou supressores de apetite. Sibutramina, femproporex e anfepramona, pertencentes a essa classe, são capazes de provocar dependência física ou psíquica. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a prevalência da prescrição de anorexígenos em farmácias comerciais de Cruz Alta - RS. Foi comparada a venda dos fármacos femproporex, anfepramona e sibutramina, nos meses de setembro, outubro e novembro de 2010 e abril, maio e junho de 2011. Observou-se que o anorexígeno mais prescrito nas três farmácias analisadas foi a sibutramina. Nos meses de setembro, outubro e novembro de 2010, o consumo foi maior, quando a sibutramina alcançou um percentual de 40,3%, a anfepramona 21% e, por fim, o femproporex, 7,9%. O consumo de inibidores de apetite foi mais prevalente no sexo feminino, o qual representou 82% do total. Os resultados sugeriram a existência de elevado consumo de anorexígenos, possivelmente relacionada à preocupação com padrões estéticos atuais, o que ressalta a importância de um controle rigoroso sobre a comercialização destas substâncias.